Association between angiotensinogen M235T gene polymorphism and risk of hypertension: A case control study among Ethiopian patients

Background: Hypertension is a major public health problem in both developing and developed nations because it is highly prevalent and is associated with complications. Numerous enviromnental and genetic variables are linked to the occurrence of the disease. It may be influenced by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, M'hich preserves bodily homeostasis. The angiotensinogen gene 11235T polymorphisms that has an effect on the activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system are related to the high hvpertension risk. The aim of this study was to find out the association between angiotensinogen Nf235T gene polymorphism and the risk of developing hypertenMon. Methods: A total of 306 samples - 153 patients Il'ith hvpertension and 153 age- and ser-matched healthy controls were selected using a simple random sampling technique. Clinical and biochemical variables were measured to assess the associated riskfactors. Blood samples from the patients and matched controls were used to isolate deoxyribonucleic acid. The AGT 11235T genotypes u:ere identified using polymerase chain reaction and analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis. Logistic regression with a 95% confidence interval (CI) was employed to assess the risk correlations ofAGT gene M235Tpolymorphisms with hypertension. Results: Our analysis showed that the AGT-TT genotype (odds ratio [OR] = 3.11, 95% CL = 1.67­5.79, P< 0.001) and T allele (OR = 2.18, 95% CL = 1.56­3.04, P< 0.001) are considerably higher in hypertensive patients than in healthy controls. Our study also identified the clinical risk factors for hypertension, such as, total cholesterol, triglycerol, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and high density lipoprotein-cholesterol Inels, which were significantly higher in patients compared to controls (P< 0.001). Conclusion: The A GT M235T genes of the TT genotype and the T allele are associated with an increased risk of hypertension among the Ethiopian patients. A population-based epidemiological study is needed corroborate the association between AGT and HTN

Detection of Human Pegivirus (HPgV) infection among Filipino children with decompensated liver disease secondary to biliary Cirrhosis and liver transplant pediatric patients

Background@#Human Pegivirus (HPgV), previously called Hepatitis G virus or GB virus C, is an RNA virus. It can be transmitted vertically (mother to infant), parenterally and sexually. HPgV share common routes of transmission to other viruses such as Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus and Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) thus co-infection is usually observed. Risk groups of HPgV include injection drug users, HIV-positive individuals, multi-transfused patients, hemodialysis patients, hemophiliacs, chronic liver disease patients and organ transplant recipients. The clinical significance of HPgV is not yet established and warrants further studies. Research on HPgV in the Philippines is scarce and has not been updated for over 10 years. There is no published data on HPgV prevalence in Filipino pediatric population specifically among risk groups like multi-transfused children with decompensated liver disease secondary to biliary cirrhosis and liver transplant pediatric patients. The lack of local data warrants conduct of this study. @*Objective@#To determine the presence of HPgV RNA, HPgV E2 antibody (anti-E2) and HBsAg among Filipino children with decompensated liver disease secondary to biliary cirrhosis (DBC) and liver transplant pediatric patients (LTP).@*Methods@#Included were 15 children with DBC and 15 LTP recruited from the Section of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition of the UP PGH. All patients’ sera were tested for HPgV RNA by Real Time RT-PCR, HPgV anti-E2 by Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) by immunochromatographic test. Twenty age and sex matched children with no history of liver disease and blood transfusion served as controls. @*Results@#All patient and control samples were negative for HPgV RNA. HPgV anti-E2 was detected in 6 of 15 LTP, 5 of 15 DBC and 1 of 20 controls. HBsAg was detected in 2 of 15 LTP, 5 of 15 DBC and 0 of 20 controls. Four patients (two LTP, two DBC) were positive for both HPgV anti-E2 and HBsAg. @*Conclusion@#This study showed that a proportion of liver transplant patients and those with decompensated biliary cirrhosis are positive for HPgV anti-E2, which indicates that these individuals previously had HPgV infection but is now resolved. Possible source of infection is infected blood from the blood transfusions, infected transplant organ or infected mother. Since routine HPgV screening is not yet recommended for the general population, blood donors and organ donors, the confirmation of exact source of infection may be difficult. Co-infection with HBsAg was also observed in both risk groups which suggests that at some point in time, these children were infected by both HPgV and HBV and also the possibility of simultaneous infection by the two viruses. This study provides preliminary data on the proportion of HPgV infection in Filipino children belonging to two of the HPgV risk groups. Studies with a larger and more significant sample size to determine HPgV prevalence as well as studies regarding the pathogenicity of HPgV are warranted. As this may provide basis for routine HPgV screening among risk groups and blood donations in the future.

Interacción entre el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana y el virus GB tipo-C durante el estado de co-infección / Interaction between HIV-1 and GB virus type-C during coinfection status

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is one of the most important problems in public health. It is estimated that 3 3 million people are infected around the world. HIV and GBV-C share the same transmission route, being frequent the co-infection. Since both viruses replicate in CD4+ lymphocytes, recent studies have described an interaction. Decreasing of HIV viral load and higher CD4 counts have been observed in co-infected patients, leading a better clinical outcome. Nevertheless, some epidemiological studies have shown contradictory results. Additionally, in vitro models report inhibition of HIV by E1, E2, NS3 and NS5A GBV-C proteins, resulting in a decreasing of p24 antigen. This review summarizes the principal findings about co-infection and mechanisms that have been proposed for HIV-1 inhibition.

La infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) continúa siendo uno de los principales problemas en salud pública; se estima que existen actualmente más de 33 millones de personas infectadas en el mundo. El VIH y el virus GB tipo C (GBV-C) comparten la misma vía de transmisión, por lo que es frecuente encontrar individuos co-infectados. Estudios recientes han descrito un efecto inhibitorio asociado a disminución en la carga viral de VIH, altos recuentos de CD4 y mayor tiempo de sobrevida en pacientes co-infectados, resultando en un mejor pronóstico y menor progreso a SIDA; adicionalmente, estudios in vitro indican que las proteínas virales E1, E2, NS3 y NS5A del GBV-C estarían implicadas en la inhibición del VIH-1. En el presente artículo se revisan los principales aspectos de la co-infección, y se describen los mecanismos propuestos para la inhibición de la replicación del VIH-1 mediada por las proteínas virales del GBV-C.

Evaluation of GBV-C / HVG viremia in HIV-infected women / Avaliação da viremia por GBV-C/HGV em mulheres infectadas pelo HIV

The present study aimed at standardizing a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay to evaluate the presence of GBV-C/HGV RNA. A "TaqMan" assay using primers and probe derived from the 5¢ NCR region was developed and validated. Two hundred and fifty-three plasma samples from HIV-infected women were tested for GBV-C viremia and antibody against the envelope protein 2. GBV-C RNA was detected in 22.5 percent of the patients whereas the antibody was identified in 25.3 percent of the cohort. Detection of viral RNA and of antibodies was mutually exclusive. Viral loads showed a mean of 1,777 arbitrary units / mL, being 1.1 and 13,625 arbitrary units / mL respectively the lowest and highest values measured. We conclude that the real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction method developed is appropriate for the investigation of GBV-C RNA since it was shown to be highly specific and sensitive, as well as requiring few steps, preventing contamination and providing additional information as to the relative viremia of carriers, a parameter that must be included in studies evaluating the co-factors influencing the clinical outcome of HIV/AIDS.

Este estudo teve como objetivo o desenvolvimento de método de PCR em Tempo Real para a determinação da viremia do vírus GBV-C. Ensaio baseado em primers e sonda "TaqMan" derivados da região 5' não-codificante deste vírus foi padronizado, validado e aplicado em uma série de 253 amostras de plasma de pacientes HIV+. Além do PCR em tempo real, as amostras foram submetidas a um ensaio imunoenzimático anti-E2 e a um nested-PCR. Das 253 amostras testadas, 64 foram positivas para o anticorpo anti-E2 (25,3 por cento), enquanto 57 amostras foram concordantemente RNA positivas pelo nested-PCR e PCR em tempo real (22,5 por cento), perfazendo um índice total de exposição de 48 por cento (25.3 + 22.5). A carga viral teve média de 1.777 UA/mL (13.625 - 1.1UA/mL). Foi obtida metodologia simples, rápida e de boa sensibilidade e especificidade, permitindo a quantificação do RNA do vírus GBV-C com reprodutibilidade. A metodologia permite a análise simultânea de grande número de amostras, sendo apropriada para estudos clínicos. A prevalência de exposição a este agente na população feminina HIV+ estudada é alta, provavelmente decorrente da via sexual comum de transmissão dos agentes.

Influence of GB virus C on IFN-γ and IL-2 production and CD38 expression in T lymphocytes from chronically HIV-infected and HIV-HCV-co-infected patients

This study was designed to assess the effect of GB virus (GBV)-C on the immune response to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in chronically HIV-infected and HIV- hepatitis C virus (HCV)-co-infected patients undergoing antiretroviral therapy. A cohort of 159 HIV-seropositive patients, of whom 52 were HCV-co-infected, was included. Epidemiological data were collected and virological and immunological markers, including the production of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and interleukin (IL)-2 by CD4, CD8 and Tγδ cells and the expression of the activation marker, CD38, were assessed. A total of 65 patients (40.8 percent) presented markers of GBV-C infection. The presence of GBV-C did not influence HIV and HCV replication or TCD4 and TCD8 cell counts. Immune responses, defined by IFN-γ and IL-2 production and CD38 expression did not differ among the groups. Our results suggest that neither GBV-C viremia nor the presence of E2 antibodies influence HIV and HCV viral replication or CD4 T cell counts in chronically infected patients. Furthermore, GBV-C did not influence cytokine production or CD38-driven immune activation among these patients. Although our results do not exclude a protective effect of GBV-C in early HIV disease, they demonstrate that this effect may not be present in chronically infected patients, who represent the majority of patients in outpatient clinics.

Estudos sobre infecções pelos vírus da hepatite B (HBV), hepatite C (HCV), hepatite delta (HDV) e vírus GB-C (GBV-C) em diferentes regiões da América do Sul / Studies on viral infections by hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis delta virus (HDV) and GB virus C (GBV-C) in different regions of South America

As hepatites virais estão entre as mais importantes pandemias mundiais da atualidade. Existem várias causas de hepatite, entre elas, o vírus da hepatite B (HBV), o vírus da hepatite C (HCV) e o vírus da Hepatite Delta (HDV). Da mesma forma, o vírus GB-C (GBV-C) é importante na coinfecção com outros vírus, como o HIV. Nesse estudo, várias regiões da América do Sul foram analisadas. Na Colômbia, os estados do Amazonas e Magdalena foram encontradas como regiões hiperendêmicas para HBV. O genótipo F3 (75%) foi o mais prevalente. Determinou-se que o subgenótipo F3 é o mais antigo dos subgenótipos F. No estado de Chocó, encontrou-se o subgenótipo A1 (52,1%) como o mais prevalente. Surpreendentemente, nesse mesmo estado foram encontrados nove casos autóctones de infecção pelo genótipo E (39,1%). Para o HCV, em Bogotá, encontrou-se o subtipo 1b (82,8%) como o mais prevalente. Da mesma forma, estimou-se que esse subtipo foi introduzido por volta de 1950 e se propagou exponencialmente entre 1970 a 1990. O HDV foi identificado em casos de hepatite fulminante do estado de Amazonas, todos classificados como genótipo 3. Se determinou que o HDV/3 se espalhou exponencialmente a partir de 1950 a 1970 na América do Sul e depois desta época, esta infecção deixou de aumentar, provavelmente devido a introdução de vacinação contra o HBV. GBV-C foi procurado em doadores de sangue colombianos infectados com HCV e/ou HBV de Bogotá e em povos indígenas com infecção pelo HBV no Amazonas. A análise filogenética revelou a presença do genótipo 2a como o mais prevalente entre os doadores de sangue e o 3 nos povos indígenas estudados. A presença do genótipo 3 na população indígena foi previamente relatada na região de Santa Marta, na Colômbia e nos povos indígenas da Venezuela e da Bolívia. No Chile, foi realizado um estudo com 21 pacientes cronicamente infectados pelo HBV sem tratamento antiviral prévio...

Viral hepatitis are among the major pandemics in the world nowadays. There are many causes of hepatitis, including hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and hepatitis delta virus (HDV). Similarly, GB virus C (GBV-C) is a relevant agent in co-infection with HIV. In this study, several regions of South America were studied. In Colombia, the states of Amazonas and Magdalena were identified as highly endemic areas for HBV. Genotype F3 (75%) was the most prevalent. It was determined that subgenotype F3 is the oldest among all F subgenotypes. In the state of Chocó, subgenotype A1 (52.1%) was the most prevalent. Surprisingly, nine indigenous cases of infection by genotype E (39.1%) were found in this state. For HCV, in Bogotá, subtype 1b (82.8%) was the most frequent. Likewise, it was estimated that this subtype was introduced around 1950 and spread exponentially from 1970 to 1990. HDV has been identified in cases of fulminant hepatitis in the state of Amazonas, all of them classified as genotype 3. It was determined that the HDV/3 spread exponentially from 1950 to 1970 in South America and after this time, this infection stopped to increase, probably due to introduction of vaccination against HBV. GBV-C was sought in Colombian blood donors infected with HCV and/or HBV in Bogotá and indigenous peoples with HBV infection in the Amazon. The phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of genotype 3 as the most prevalent among blood donors and in three studied indigenous people. The presence of genotype 3 in the indigenous population has been previously reported in the region of Santa Marta, Colombia, and in the indigenous peoples of Venezuela and Bolivia. In Chile, a study was carried out with 21 patients chronically infected with HBV without any prior antiviral treatment...

[Evaluation of touchdown nested PCR to circumvent spurious priming and increase specificity during HIV and GBV-C gene amplification]

Primer-Template hybridization temperature is one of the important parameters in Nested PCR optimization. Unlike instant temperature for sequence amplification in routine PCR process, Touchdown PCR is a modified form of standard PCR that employs a range of annealing temperature. This study intended to develop a Touchdown Nested PCR in order to circumvent spurious priming and enhancing specify during gene amplification. This is an experimental study conducted at Tarbiat Modarres University of Tehran during 2008-2009. Study samples were collected from Digestive Diseases Research Centre at Shariati Hospital and HIV research center-Imam Khomeini Hospital. After extracting the nucleic acid, primer designing for HIV and GBV-C and c-DNA synthesis; Nested PCR was performed on negative and positive samples using standard and touchdown protocols. The intended band was observed in all positive samples. No band was observed in any human and viral negative control samples. After electrophoresis of PCR products, non specific band were seen in HIV and GBV-C samples during standard PCR. Using the touchdown protocol, undesirable bands were omitted or significantly decreased. In the present study, despite the formation of uncalled bands in standard reaction; using the touchdown method led to omission of non-specific bands without any significant effect on the final products. As for its simplicity, cost and time saving, it seems that using this method is a rational and economical way for fast optimization of PCR reactions

Analysis of GB virus C infection among HIV-HCV coinfected patients / Análise da infecção pelo vírus GB-C em pacientes com coinfecção VIH-VHC

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of GB virus C on laboratory markers and histological parameters among HIV-seropositive patients coinfected with HCV. Lower degrees of hepatic lesions were observed in the triple-infected patients, in comparison with HIV-HCV coinfected patients who were negative for GBV-C RNA.

O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar o efeito da infecção pelo vírus GB-C em marcadores laboratoriais e parâmetros histológicos em pacientes HIV soropositivos coinfectados com VHC. Menor grau de lesão hepática foi observado nos pacientes com tripla infecção em comparação aos pacientes coinfectados com VIH-VHC negativos para GBV-C RNA.

Hepatitis C virus and hepatitis G virus infection in patients with chronic urticaria

In order to study the prevalence of hepatitis C virus [HCV] and hepatitis G virus [HGV] infection in patients with chronic urticaria, 46 patients with chronic urticaria [25 females and 21 males with mean age of 36.2+10.9 years] were screened for HCV and HGV infection using PCR technique. None of the patients had a history of acute hepatitis. A control group composed of 50 apparently healthy subjects [age and sex matched and from the same geographical region] was included in the study. HCV RNA was detected in 13 out of 46 patients [28.2%] and in 7 out of 50 control subjects [14%], the difference was statistically significant P<0.05]. There was no difference in sex between the positive and negative HCV patients but positive patients were older and the duration of their urticaria was longer and had higher levels of liver enzymes in comparison to HCV negative patients. HGV RNA was detected in 5 out of 46 patients [10.8%] and in 5 out of 50 control subjects [10%], there was no statistical difference between the two results [P>0.05]. From the results of this study, it could be concluded that there is a significant association between HCV infection and chronic urticaria, and that HGV infection has no role in the pathogenesis of chronic urticaria. Thus it is recommended to screen patients with chronic urticaria, especially the older ones with long duration of urticaria and with elevated liver enzymes, for HCV infection, in order to diagnose the disease early. This early diagnosis of HCV infection is important for early treatment

Effect of GBV-C/HIV coinfection on HIV/AIDS disease progression and HIV replication / 病毒学报

Several research groups have recently reported that persistent GB virus C (GBV-C) co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) leads to slower AIDSs disease progression than HIV-1 infection alone. However, these findings were not confirmed by several other studies. To investigate the association between GBV-C replication and plasma HIV loads and CD4+ T cell counts, 203 HIV-1 positive former blood/plasma donors(FBDs) were enrolled from Fuyang city of Anhui Province in China. Plasma specimens were collected from them and were tested for GBV-C using RT-PCR and ELISA. Out of 203 specimens, 52 (25.6%) cases were positive for GBV-C, including 35 male (67.3%) and 17 female (32.7%) cases. No significant association was identified between GBV-C infection and CD4+ T-cell counts or between GBV-C infection and HIV viral loads. Since all the subjects studied were naive to ART, the influence of therapy on AIDS disease progression was ruled out in this study. Overall, our data indicated that HIV-1 positive male FBDs were prone to be infected, GBV-C coinfection with HIV-1 does not significantly influence HIV/AIDS disease progression during the late stage of chronic HIV-1 infection.

Occurrence & nucleotide sequence analysis of hepatitis G virus in patients with acute viral hepatitis & fulminant hepatitis.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Association of hepatitis G virus (HGV) with acute viral hepatitis (AVH) and fulminant hepatitis (FH) is not clearly understood.This study was designed to asses the occurrence of HGV infection and its relationship with other hepatotropic viruses in patients with FH and AVH and also to determine the nucleotide sequence of HGV isolates. METHODS: The study included 100 patients of FH and 125 of AVH on the basis of clinical examination, liver function test and serology for hepatitis A, B, C and E virus. HGV RNA was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and direct sequencing for 4 randomly selected samples followed by phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS: Of the 100 patients with FH, 30 were negative for hepatitis viruses A, B, C and E by serology (non A-non E) while 60 were negative in the AVH group. In the non A-non-E hepatitis group, HGV was positive in 16.66 per cent (5/30) cases of FH, 10 per cent (6/60) cases of AVH and 6 per cent (6/100) of healthy controls. The difference in HGV seropositivity between FH and AVH patients was statistically not significant compared to healthy controls, while HBV and HCV infections were significant. The four isolates sequenced seemed to be of same type and close to Chinese strain of HGV (Y13755.1 Y13756.1 Y15407, and U67782) on phylogeny. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: In HGV infection was not found to be clinically significant as well as nonpathogenic in the patients of FH and AVH and appeared to be an innocent bystander in the course of the disease. The four sequenced HGV isolates showed close pairing with Chinese strains.

Evaluation of HGV viremia prevalence and its co- infection with HBV, HCV, HIV and HTLV-1 in hemophilic patients of Southern Khorassan, Iran

The GB virus-C [GBV-C] and Hepatitis G virus [HGV], collectively known as GBV-C/HGV and transmitted through blood transfusion and blood components. A co-infection of HGV and HCV is often seen in patients with hemophilia. The paucity of information about rate of GBV-C infection among hemophilic patients in Iran promoted the current study. This study was performed on 80 hemophilic patients from south Khorassan branch of Iranian hemophilia society in Birjand. All 80 serum samples were tested for hepatitis B surface antigen [HBs-Ag], Anti HCV, Anti HIV, and Anti HTLV-1. All sera positive for HCVAb were retested by recombinant immunoblot assay as a complementary test. Also, Serum HCV-RNA, HCV genotyping and HGV-RNA were detected. The prevalence of HGV-RNA was 5% [4 of 80]. The prevalence of Anti HCV positive was 26.3% [21 of 80] and HCV- RNA was detected in 80% [17 of 21] of these patients. Co infection of HGV with HCV was 5%. HBsAg and Anti HIV were negative in all of our patients. Anti HTLV-1 was detected in one patient [1.25%]. HGV and HCV are prevalent in South Khorassan hemophilic patients. Prevalence of HGV infection is less than HCV but it is more prevalent than HBV, HIV and HTLV-1 infection

High prevalence of HGV coinfection with HBV or HCV among northeastern Thai blood donors.

Hepatitis G viral (HGV) infection among northeastern Thai blood donors was determined by the nested RT-PCR technique. HGV RNA was amplified by the degenerated helicase primers for a product of the expected size of 83 base pairs were used in this study. Serum samples from 322 of three different categories of northeastern Thai blood donors were included in this study. There were 104 HBsAg and Anti-HCV seronegative blood donors (control group), 100 samples of HBs Ag seropositive blood donors (HBV infected group) and 118 serum samples from anti-HCV seropositive blood donors (HCV infected group). The results demonstrated that HGV RNA was not detected in the control group but was found in 10 individuals (10%) in the HBV infected group and 13 (11%) in the anti-HCV positive blood donors. The prevalences of HGV in both seropositive groups were significantly different from the control group (p = 0.001). HGV co-infection is highly prevalent among northeastern Thai blood donors who are infected with HBV or HCV. The results also reveal that blood donors seronegative for HCV and HBV are a low risk group for HGV infection.

Transfusion-Transmitted Diseases: Current State and Recent Countermeasures

Infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria and parasites, can be transmitted via human blood and blood products. Of greatest importance are viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 (HIV-1/2), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and hepatitis C virus (HCV), followed by other viruses such as cytomegalovirus (CMV) and human parvovirus B19. Viruses such as hepatitis G virus and TT virus can also be transmitted via blood products, but their pathogenicity is still unclear. Bacteria, including Treponema pallidum and Yersinia enterocolitica and parasites such as Plasmodium species can also be transmitted from donors to recipients. Furthermore, the threat of newly emerging pathogens that can affect the blood safety, such as the variant Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease, is always present. The measures to reduce the risks of transfusiontransmitted infection within the last 20 years, such as donor selection and testing donated blood for various infectious agents, have had a remarkable impact on the safety of blood supply. Nevertheless, the public expectation of absolute blood safety continues to exert pressure to eliminate the remaining risks. The recent introduction of molecular biology techniques combined with viral inactivation methods is directed to get this goal.

HEV, TTV and GBV-C/HGV markers in patients with acute viral hepatitis

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of HEV, TTV and GBV-C/GBV-C/HGV in patients with acute viral hepatitis A, B and non-A-C. We evaluated sera of 94 patients from a sentinel program who had acute hepatitis A (N = 40), B (N = 42) and non-A-C (N = 12); 71 blood donors served as controls. IgM and anti-HEV IgG antibodies were detected by enzyme immunoassay using commercial kits. TTV and GBV-C/HGV were detected by nested PCR; genotyping was done by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Anti-HEV IgG was present in 38, 10 and 17 percent of patients with hepatitis A, B and non-A-C. Four patients with hepatitis A and 1 with non-A-C hepatitis also had anti-HEV IgM detected in serum. TTV was detected in 21 percent of patients with acute hepatitis and in 31 percent of donors. GBV-C/HGV was detected in 9 percent of patients with hepatitis, and in 10 percent of donors. We found TTV isolates of genotypes 1, 2, 3, and 4 and GBV-C/HGV isolates of genotypes 1 and 2. Mean aminotransferase levels were lower in patients who were TTV or GBV-C/HGV positive. In conclusion, the detection of anti-HEV IgM in some acute hepatitis A cases suggests co-infection with HEV and hepatitis E could be the etiology of a few cases of sporadic non-A-C hepatitis in Salvador, Brazil. TTV genotype 1, 2, 3 and 4 isolates and GBV-C/HGV genotype 1 and 2 strains are frequent in the studied population. TTV and GBV-C/HGV infection does not appear to have a role in the etiology of acute hepatitis.

GBV-C/HGV and HIV-1 coinfection

An interesting interaction pattern has been found between HIV-1 and GBV-C/HGV, resulting in protection against progression to AIDS. The mechanisms involved in this interaction remain to be clarified. We examined the current knowledge concerning this coinfection and developed hypotheses to explain its effects. A better understanding of this interaction could result in new concepts, which may lead to new strategies to control HIV-1 replication and progression to AIDS.

Individuals with HGV-RNA are at high risk of B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma development.

Lymphoma is a common hematological malignancy. Hepatitis viruses, especially hepatitis B and hepatitis C, are known risk factors for development of non-Hodgkin lymphomas. However, there are a number of patients with hepatitis in whom no virus can be identified and it was therefore postulated that there may be other agents which may be causing hepatitis. Many new hepatitis viruses have indeed been identified and proposed to have possible roles in pathogenesis of many disorders. Hepatitis G virus (HGV) is an example of a newly detected hepatitis virus. Whethere there is a correlation between infection and development of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is of interest. Therefore an appraisal of the prevalence of HGV RNA among patients with B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma comparing with healthy control subjects was performed. According to the literature review, three reports covering 247 cases of non Hodgkin's lymphoma were recruited. The overall prevalence of HGV RNA positivity was found to be 7.2 % (18/247). Of the three reports, only two had complete data on the prevalence in both patients with B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and healthy control subjects andwere used for further metanalysis study, covering 178 cases and 355 healthy subjects. The overall antibody positive rate in the patients and healthy subjects were 8.4 % (15/178) and 0.8 % (3/355), respectively, with an odds ratio is 10.8. According to this study, it can be seen that individuals who are HGV RNA positive may be at very high risk of B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma development.